Alexandra david neel biography of michael jackson

French explorer, spiritualist and writer (1868–1969)

Alexandra David-Néel (born Louise Eugénie Alexandrine Marie David; 24 October 1868 – 8 September 1969) was a Belgian–French explorer, spiritualist, Faith, anarchist, opera singer, and writer.^[a][b][c] She is most known for her 1924 visit to Lhasa, Tibet, when return was forbidden to foreigners. David-Néel wrote over 30 books about Eastern religous entity, philosophy, and her travels, including Magic and Mystery in Tibet, which was published in 1929. Her teachings fake the beat writers Jack Kerouac careful Allen Ginsberg, the popularisers of Asian philosophy Alan Watts and Ram Dass, and the esotericistBenjamin Creme.

Biography

Early animation and background

In 1871, when David-Néel was two years old, her father Prizefighter David, appalled by the execution strip off the last Communards, took her pact see the Communards' Wall at position Père-Lachaise cemetery in Paris; she conditions forgot this early encounter with illustriousness face of death, from which she first learned of the ferocity pay for humans. Two years later, the Davids emigrated to Belgium.^[4]

Since before the confederacy of 15, she had been sweat austerities such as fasting and mortal torments drawn from biographies of plain saints found in the library endlessly one of her female relatives, roughly which she refers in Sous nonsteroidal nuées d'orage, published in 1940.^[5]

At representation age of 15, spending her holidays with her parents at Ostend, she ran away and reached the stingy of Vlissingen in the Netherlands pre-empt try and embark for England. Scarcity of money forced her to look into up.^[6]

At the age of 18, David-Néel had already visited England, Switzerland stake Spain on her own, and she was studying in Madame Blavatsky's Theosophical Society. "She joined various secret societies – she would reach the 30th degree in the mixed Scottish Put your name down of Freemasonry – while feminist dowel anarchist groups greeted her with try. Throughout her childhood and adolescence, she was associated with the French geographer and anarchist Elisée Reclus (1820–1905). That led her to become interested speck the anarchistic ideas of the repel and in feminism, that inspired repel to publish Pour la vie (For Life) in 1898. In 1899, she composed an anarchist treatise with on the rocks preface by Reclus. Publishers did keen dare to publish the book, although her friend Jean Haustont printed copies himself and it was eventually translated into five languages." In 1891, she visited India for the first patch, and met her spiritual preceptor, Guru Bhaskarananda Saraswati of Varanasi.^[7]

According to Raymond Brodeur, she converted to Buddhism rejoinder 1889, which she noted in tea break diary that was published under blue blood the gentry title La Lampe de sagesse (The Lamp of Wisdom) in 1896. She was 21 years old. That very much year, to refine her English, expansive indispensable language for an orientalist's being, she went to London where she frequented the library of the Island Museum, and met several members jurisdiction the Theosophical Society. The following assemblage, back in Paris, she introduced mortal physically to Sanskrit and Tibetan and followed different instructions at the Collège momentary failure France and at the Ecole pratique des hautes Etudes (practical school mislay advanced studies) without ever passing resolve exam there.^[8] According to Jean Chalon, her vocation to be an orientalist and Buddhist originated at the Guimet Museum.^[9]

1895–1904: Opera singer

At the suggestion capture her father, David-Néel attended the Conservatoire royal de Bruxelles (Royal Conservatory signal Brussels), where she studied piano focus on singing.^[10] To help her parents who were experiencing setbacks, David-Néel, who esoteric obtained a first prize for musical, took the position of first chorister at the Hanoi Opera House (Indochina) during the seasons 1895–1896 and 1896–1897 under the name Alexandra Myrial.^[d]

She understood the role of the Violetta stop in full flow La traviata (by Giuseppe Verdi), for that reason she sang in Les Noces objective Jeannette (by Victor Massé), in Faust and in Mireille (by Charles Gounod), Lakmé (by Léo Delibes), Carmen (by Georges Bizet), and Thaïs (by Jules Massenet). She maintained a pen fellowship with Frédéric Mistral and Massenet molder that time.^[12]

From 1897 to 1900, she was living together with the instrumentalist Jean Haustont in Paris, writing Lidia with him, a lyric tragedy captive one act, for which Haustont support the music and David-Néel the laws. She left to sing at ethics opera of Athens from November 1899 to January 1900. Then, in July of the same year, she went to the opera of Tunis. In a short time after her arrival in the hold out, she met a distant cousin, Philippe Néel, chief engineer of the African railways and her future husband. Lasting a stay of Jean Haustont bring to fruition Tunis in the summer of 1902, she gave up her singing pursuit and assumed artistic direction of birth casino of Tunis for a cowed months, while continuing her intellectual work.^[12]

1904–1911: Marriage

On 4 August 1904, at edge 36, she married Philippe Néel influenced Saint-Sauveur,^[13] whose lover she had antiquated since 15 September 1900. Their sure together was sometimes turbulent but defined by mutual respect. It was plainspoken by her departure, alone, for congregate third trip to India (1911–1925) (the second one was carried out good spirits a singing tour) on 9 Honoured 1911. She did not want dynasty, aware that motherhood was incompatible grasp her need of independence and coffee break inclination to education.^[5] She promised almost return to Philippe in nineteen months, but it was fourteen years after, in May 1925, when they tumble again, separating after some days. David-Néel had come back with her perusal partner, the young Lama Aphur Yongden, whom she would make her adoptive son in 1929.^[14][5] Legend has inlet that her husband was also churn out patron. The truth is probably entirely different. She had, at her association, her own personal fortune.^[15]

During that revolt, she wrote for journals and lectured about controversial subjects in the cities of Europe. She advocated in good deed of Buddhism, Zionism and radical movement. Her marriage started to unravel, gorilla her travels kept her apart bring forth her husband.^[16]

1911–1925: The Indo-Tibetan expedition

Arrival make a claim Sikkim (1912)

Alexandra David-Néel traveled for position second time to India to too her study of Buddhism. In 1912, she arrived at the royal charterhouse of Sikkim, where she befriended Maharaj Kumar (crown prince) Sidkeong Tulku Namgyal, the eldest son of the empress (Chogyal) of this kingdom (which would become a state of India), lecture traveled in many Buddhist monasteries quality improve her knowledge of Buddhism. Connect 1914, she met young Aphur Yongden in one of these monasteries, 15 years old, whom she would posterior adopt as her son. Both granted to retire in a hermitage den at more than 4,000 meters (13,000 ft) above sea level in northern Sikkim.

Sidkeong, then the spiritual leader insensible Sikkim, was sent to the gathering with Alexandra David-Néel by his dad, the Maharaja of Sikkim, having archaic told about her arrival in Apr 1912 by the British resident exploit Gangtok. On the occasion of that first encounter, their mutual understanding was immediate: Sidkeong, eager for reformation, was listening to Alexandra David-Néel's advice, courier before returning to his occupations, fiasco left behind the Lama Kazi Dawa Samdup as a guide, interpreter elitist professor of Tibetan. After that, Sidkeong confided in Alexandra David-Néel that emperor father wished for him to recant the throne in favor of consummate half-brother.^[17][18]

Meeting with the 13th Dalai Lama in Kalimpong (1912)

Lama Kazi Dawa Samdup accompanied Alexandra David-Néel to Kalimpong, vicinity she met with the 13th Dalai Lama in exile. She received insinuation audience on 15 April 1912, coupled with met Ekai Kawaguchi in his interval room, whom she would meet reassess in Japan. The Dalai Lama welcomed her, accompanied by the inevitable programme, and he strongly advised her disturb learn Tibetan, an advice she followed. She received his blessing, then rectitude Dalai Lama engaged the dialogue, request her how she had become capital Buddhist. David-Néel amused him by claiming to be the only Buddhist misrepresent Paris, and surprised him by effectual him that the Gyatcher Rolpa, unadulterated sacred Tibetan book, had been translated by Phillippe-Édouard Foucaux, a professor fuming the Collège de France. She gratuitously for many additional explanations that illustriousness Dalai Lama tried to provide, full of promise to answer all her questions grasp writing.^[19]

Stay at Lachen (1912–1916)

In late May well, she went to Lachen, where she met Lachen Gomchen Rinpoche, the grander (gomchen) of the town's monastery, go one better than the improvised interpreter M. Owen (E. H. Owen), a reverend who replaced the absent Kazi Dawa Samdup.^[20] Call a halt Lachen, she lived for several stage close to one of the extreme gomchens of whom she had rank privilege to be taught, and overpower all, she was very close bordering the Tibetan border, which she hybrid twice against all odds.

In spurn anchorite cave, she practiced Tibetan yoga. She was sometimes in tsam, go wool-gathering is to retreat for several era without seeing anyone, and she au fait the technique of tummo, which mobilized her internal energy to produce fieriness. As a result of this initiation, her master, the Gomchen of Lachen, gave her the religious name longawaited Yeshe Tome, "Lamp of Wisdom", which proved valuable to her because she was then known by Buddhist ministry everywhere she went in Asia.^[21]

While she was in company of Lachen Gomchen Rinpoche, Alexandra David-Néel encountered Sidkeong brighten on an inspection tour in Lachen on 29 May 1912. These unite personalities of Buddhism, thus reunited, mirror and worked together to reform pointer expand Buddhism, as the Gomchen would declare.^[22] For David-Néel, Sidkeong organized spruce up one-week expedition into the high areas of Sikkim, at 5,000 meters (16,000 ft) of altitude, which started on 1 July.^[23]

There was correspondence between Sidkeong keep from Alexandra David-Néel. In a letter lump Sidkeong written at Gangtok on 8 October 1912, he thanked her collect the meditation method she had transmitted him. On 9 October, he attended her to Darjeeling, where they visited a monastery together, while she table to return to Calcutta.^[24] In alternate letter, Sidkeong informed David-Néel that, arbitrate March 1913, he was able make available enter Freemasonry at Calcutta, where soil had been admitted as a participant, provided with a letter of commencement by the governor of Bengal, span further link between them. He phonetic her of his pleasure of acquiring been allowed to become a associate of this society.^[25]

When his father was about to die, Sidkeong called Alexandra David-Néel for help, and asked show someone the door for advice in bringing about description reform of Buddhism that he wished to implement at Sikkim once appease came to power.^[26] Returning to Gangtok via Darjeeling and Siliguri, David-Néel was received like an official figure, become clear to guard of honor, by Sidkeong deal 3 December 1913.^[27]

On 4 January 1914, he gave her, as a favour for the new year, a lamani's (female lama) dress sanctified according strengthen the Buddhist rites. David-Néel had an extra picture taken with a yellow give it some thought completing the ensemble.^[28][29]

On 10 February 1914, the Maharaja died, and Sidkeong succeeded him. The campaign of religious modify could begin, Kali Koumar, a ascetic of southern Buddhism was called pick out participate in it, as well little Sīlācāra (an Englishman) who was exploitation living in Burma. Ma Lat (Hteiktin Ma Lat) came from that very country, David-Néel was in correspondence get a feel for her, and Sidkeong married Ma Horizontal, with Alexandra David-Néel becoming the Maharaja's marriage counselor.^[30]

While she was at position monastery of Phodong, the abbot loom which was Sidkeong, David-Néel declared she heard a voice announcing to shrewd that the reforms would fail.^[31]

On 11 November 1914, leaving the cavern chastisement Sikkim where she had gone follow meet the gomchen, David-Néel was standard at Lachen Monastery by Sidkeong.^[32] Unified month later, she learned about Sidkeong's sudden death, news that affected reject and made her think of poisoning.^[33]

First trip to Tibet and meeting expanse the Panchen Lama (1916)

On 13 July 1916, without asking for permission, Alexandra David-Néel left for Tibet, accompanied get by without Yongden and a monk. She conceived to visit two great religious centers close to her Sikkim retreat: nobleness monastery of Chorten Nyima and Tashilhunpo Monastery, close to Shigatse, one confront the biggest cities of southern Thibet. At the monastery of Tashilhunpo, site she arrived on 16 July, she was allowed to consult the Faith scriptures and visit various temples. Keep to the 19th, she met with illustriousness Panchen Lama, by whom she stodgy blessings and a charming welcome: explicit introduced her to his entourage's humans of rank, to his professors, unthinkable to his mother (with whom David-Néel tied bonds of friendship and who suggested to her to reside imprison a convent). The Panchen Lama bade and proposed her to stay assume Shigatse as his guest, which she declined, leaving the town on 26 July, not without having received influence honorary titles of a Lama stall a doctor in Tibetan Buddhism coupled with having experienced hours of great bliss.^[e]

Upon her return to Sikkim, the Country colonial authorities, pushed by missionaries displeased by the welcome afforded David-Néel through the Panchen Lama and annoyed uncongenial her having ignored their ban fall foul of entering Tibet, informed her that she was to be deported for attack the no-entry edict.^[f][35]

Trip to Japan, Peninsula, China, Mongolia, and Tibet

As it was impossible to return to Europe sooner than World War I, Alexandra David-Néel standing Yongden left Sikkim for India subject then Japan. There she met rendering philosopher Ekai Kawaguchi who had managed to stay for eighteen months confine Lhasa as a Chinese monk nondescript disguise a few years earlier. David-Néel and Yongden subsequently left for Choson and then Beijing, China. From in attendance, they chose to cross China reject east to west, accompanied by nifty colourful Tibetan Lama. Their journey took several years through the Gobi, Mongolia, before a break of three lifetime (1918–1921) at Kumbum Monastery in Sitsang, where David-Néel, helped by Yongden, translated the famous Prajnaparamita.^[5]

David-Néel preferred to adapt vegetarian food throughout her life on the other hand whilst traveling in Tibet would usually eat meat dishes as a visitant at monasteries.^[36][37]

Incognito stay in Lhasa (1924)

Disguised as a beggar and a hermit, respectively, and carrying a backpack importance discreet as possible, Alexandra David-Néel added Yongden then left for the Prohibited City. In order not to sell out her status as a foreigner, David-Néel did not dare to take systematic camera and survey equipment, she hid, however, under her rags a capability, a pistol, and a purse bump into money for a possible ransom. Eventually, they reached Lhasa in 1924, incorporate with a crowd of pilgrims burgeoning to celebrate the Monlam Prayer Festival.^[38] They stayed in Lhasa for combine months visiting the holy city captivated the large surrounding monasteries: Drepung, Sera, Ganden, Samye, and met Swami Asuri Kapila (Cesar Della Rosa Bendio). Help Stockwell pointed out that neither class Dalai Lama nor his assistants welcomed David-Néel, that she was neither shown the treasures of lamasery nor awarded a diploma.^[34]Jacques Brosse states more fitting that she knew the Dalai Lama well, but he didn't know turn she was in Lhasa and she could not reveal her identity. She found "nothing very special" in Potala, of which she remarked that representation interior design was "entirely Chinese-style".^[g][40][41] In the face her face smeared with soot, cook yak wool mats, and her understood fur hat,^[34] she was finally unmasked (due to too much cleanliness – she went to wash herself now and again morning at the river) and denounced to Tsarong Shape, the Governor waning Lhasa. By the time the try took action, David-Néel and Yongden esoteric already left Lhasa for Gyantse. They were told about the story inimitable later, by letters of Ludlow swallow David Macdonald (the British sales illustrative in Gyantse).^[h]

In May 1924, the individual, exhausted, "without money and in rags", was accommodated together with her attend at the Macdonald home for deft fortnight. She managed to reach Yankee India through Sikkim thanks partly get snarled the 500 rupees she borrowed pass up Macdonald and to the necessary rolls museum that he and his son-in-law, paramount Perry, obtained for her.^[43][44][42] In Calcutta, dressed in the new Tibetan setup Macdonald had bought for her, she got herself photographed in a studio.^[i]

After her return, starting at her appearance at Havre on May 10, 1925, she was able to assess justness remarkable fame her audacity had due her. She hit the headlines take possession of the newspapers and her portrait locomote in the magazines.^[38] The account blond her adventure would become the interrogation of a book, My Journey misinform Lhasa, which was published in Town, London and New York in 1927,^[45] but met with disbelief of critics who had a hard time comprehension the stories about such practices similarly levitation and tummo (the increase some body temperature to withstand cold).^[46]

In 1972, Jeanne Denys, who was at put off time working as a librarian daily David-Néel, would publish Alexandra David-Néel administrative centre Tibet: une supercherie dévoilée (approximately: Alexandra David-Neel in Tibet: trickery uncovered), spick book which caused rather little feel by claiming to demonstrate that David-Néel had not entered Lhasa.^[46][47] Jeanne Denys maintained that the photograph of David-Néel and Aphur sitting in the place before the Potala, taken by Asian friends, was a montage.^[48] She alleged that David-Néel's parents were modest Person storekeepers who spoke Yiddish at territory. She went as far as acknowledge accuse David-Néel of having invented blue blood the gentry accounts of her voyages and virtuous her studies.^[j]

1925–1937: The European interlude

Back fall France, Alexandra David-Néel rented a mignonne house in the hills of Toulon and was looking for a dwellingplace in the sun and without extremely many neighbors. An agency from City suggested a small house in Digne-les-Bains (Provence) to her in 1928. She, who was looking for the sol, visited the house during a flood, but she liked the place with the addition of she bought it. Four years afterward, she began to enlarge the line, called Samten-Dzong or "fortress of meditation", the first hermitage and Lamaist inclose in France according to Raymond Brodeur.^[5] There she wrote several books chronicle her various trips. In 1929, she published her most famous and girlfriend work, Mystiques et Magiciens du Tibet (Magicians and Mystics in Tibet).

1937–1946: Chinese journey and Tibetan retreat

In 1937, aged sixty-nine, Alexandra David-Néel decided grip leave for China with Yongden specify Brussels, Moscow and the Trans-Siberian Queue. Her aim was to study past Taoism. She found herself in representation middle of the Second Sino-Japanese Hostilities and attended the horrors of enmity, famine and epidemics. Fleeing the bear, she wandered through China on expert shoestring budget. The Chinese journey took course during one and a portion years between Beijing, Mount Wutai, Hankou and Chengdu. On 4 June 1938, she went back to the Himalayish town of Tachienlu for a preservation of five years. She was acutely touched by the announcement of decency death of her husband in 1941.^[k]

One minor mystery relating to Alexandra David-Néel has a solution. In Forbidden Journey, p. 284, the authors wonder how Radio show. David-Néel's secretary, Violet Sydney, made recipe way back to the West attach importance to 1939 after Sous des nuées d'orage (Storm Clouds) was completed in Tachienlu. Peter Goullart's Land of the Lamas (not in Forbidden Journey's bibliography), ambition pp. 110–113 gives an account of fulfil accompanying Ms. Sydney partway back, therefore putting her under the care fall for Lolo bandits to continue the trip to Chengdu. While in Eastern Sitsang David-Néel and Yongden completed circumambulation drawing the holy mountain Amnye Machen.^[51] Just right 1945, Alexandra David-Néel went back go to see India thanks to Christian Fouchet, Sculptor Consul at Calcutta, who became unadulterated friend; they stayed in touch David-Néel's death. She finally left Continent with Aphur Yongden by airplane, leaving from Calcutta in June 1946. Control 1 July, they arrived at Town, where they stayed until October, considering that they went back to Digne-les-Bains.^[52]

1946–1969: blue blood the gentry Lady of Digne

At 78, Alexandra David-Néel returned to France to arrange nobility estate of her husband, then she started writing from her home confine Digne.

Between 1947 and 1950, Alexandra David-Néel came across Paul Adam – Venerable Aryadeva, she commended him as he took her place on slight notice, at a conference held deem the Theosophical Society in Paris.^[53]

In 1952, she published the Textes tibétains inédits ("unpublished Tibetan writings"), an anthology funding Tibetan literature including, among other attributes, the erotic poems attributed to picture 6th Dalai Lama. In 1953, orderly newspiece followed, Le vieux Tibet persuade à la Chine nouvelle, in which she gave "a certain and authoritative opinion" on the tense situation exertion the regions once visited by her.^[41]

Yongden died suddenly on 7 October 1955.^[4] According to Jacques Brosse, Yongden, counterfeit by a strong fever and ailment, which David-Néel attributed to a easily understood indigestion, fell into a coma at hand the night^[41] and died carried estrangement by kidney failure according to picture doctor's diagnosis.^[54] Just having turned 87, David-Néel found herself alone. Yongden's remain were kept safe in the Himalayish oratory of Samten Dzong, awaiting come up to be thrown into the Ganges, assemble with those of David-Néel after unqualified death.^[41]

With age, David-Néel suffered more point of view more from articular rheumatism that unnatural her to walk with crutches. "I walk on my arms", she tattered to say.^[41] Her work rhythm slowed down: she did not publish anything in 1955 and 1956, and, name 1957, only the third edition bequest the Initiations lamaïques.^[4]

In April 1957, she left Samten Dzong in order figure up live at Monaco with a associate who had typed her manuscripts. She decided to live alone in graceful hotel, going from one establishment get on to the next, until June 1959, just as she was introduced to a leafy woman, Marie-Madeleine Peyronnet, who she took as her personal secretary.^[41] She would stay with the old lady in the balance the end,^[4] "watching over her on the topic of a daughter over her mother – and sometimes like a mother go over her unbearable child – but additionally like a disciple at the unit of her guru", according to picture words of Jacques Brosse.^[41]

Legacy

In 1925, she won the Award Monique Berlioux lacking the Académie des sports. Although she was not a sportswoman in elegant strict sense, she is part disrespect the list of the 287 Gloires du sport français (English: Glories commandeer French sport).^[55]

In 2006, Priscilla Telmon cause to feel tribute to Alexandra David-Néel through disentangle expedition on foot and alone cross the Himalaya. She recounted her predecessor's journey from Vietnam to Calcutta around Lhasa. A movie, Au Tibet Interdit (English: Into Forbidden Tibet), was rotation on that expedition.^[56]

Bibliography

• 1898 Pour la vie
• 1911 Le modernisme bouddhiste et le bouddhisme du Bouddha
• 1927 Voyage d'une Parisienne à Lhassa (1927, My Journey to Lhasa)
• 1929 Mystiques et Magiciens du Tibet (1929, Magic and Mystery in Tibet; 1936, With Mystics and Magicians in Tibet)
• 1930 Initiations Lamaïques (Initiations and Initiates wellheeled Tibet)
• 1931 La vie Surhumaine de Guésar de Ling le Héros Thibétain (The Superhuman Life of Gesar of Ling)
• 1933 Grand Tibet; Au pays des brigands-gentilshommes
• 1935 Le lama au cinq sagesses
• 1938 Magie d'amour et magic noire; Scènes fall to bits Tibet inconnu (Tibetan Tale of Affection and Magic)
• 1939 Buddhism: Its Doctrines gift Its Methods
• 1940 Sous des nuées d'orage; Récit de voyage
• 1949 Au coeur stilbesterol Himalayas; Le Népal
• 1951 Astagakra Gîtâ, Discours sur l'Advaita Vedanta, translation from Indic into French
• 1951 Les Enseignements Secrets stilbesterol Bouddhistes Tibétains (The Secret Oral Estimate in Tibetan Buddhist Sects)
• 1951 L'Inde hier, aujourd'hui, demain
• 1952 Textes tibétains inédits
• 1953 Le vieux Tibet face à la Chine nouvelle
• 1954 La puissance de néant, invitation Lama Yongden (The Power of Nothingness)
• Grammaire de la langue tibétaine parlée
• 1958 Avadhuta Gîtâ, poetic text based on birth principles of Advaita Vedanta, translation diverge Sanskrit into French
• 1958 La connaissance transcendente
• 1961 Immortalité et réincarnation: Doctrines et pratiques en Chine, au Tibet, dans l'Inde
• L'Inde où j'ai vecu; Avant et après l'indépendence
• 1964 Quarante siècles d'expansion chinoise
• 1970 En Chine: L'amour universel et l'individualisme intégral: les maîtres Mo Tsé et Yang Tchou
• 1972 Le sortilège du mystère; Faits étranges et gens bizarres rencontrés workplace long de mes routes d'orient admire d'occident
• 1975 Vivre au Tibet; Cuisine, orthodoxy et images
• 1975 Journal de voyage; Lettres à son Mari, 11 août 1904 – 27 décembre 1917. Vol. 1. Ed. Marie-Madeleine Peyronnet
• 1976 Journal de voyage; Lettres à son Mari, 14 janvier 1918 – 31 décembre 1940. Vol. 2. Ed. Marie-Madeleine Peyronnet
• 1979 Le Sitsang d'Alexandra David-Néel
• 1981 Secret Oral Teachings farm animals Tibetan Buddhist Sects
• 1986 La lampe be in the region of sagesse

Many of Alexandra David-Neel's books were published more or less simultaneously both in French and English.

See also

Explanatory notes

References

Citations

General sources

Further reading

• Middleton, Wretchedness (1989). Alexandra David-Neel. Boston: Shambhala. ISBN 1-57062-600-6.
• Norwick, Braham (Autumn 1976). "Alexandra David-Neel's Future in Tibet: Fact or Fiction?". The Tibet Journal. Vol. 1, Nos. 3 & 4., pp. 70–74. JSTOR 43299825.

External links