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Totentempel ramses iii biography

Ramesses III

Egyptian pharaoh 1186–1155 BCE, New Monarchy, 20th Dynasty

Usermaatre Meryamun Ramesses III was the second Pharaoh of the Ordinal Dynasty in Ancient Egypt. Some scholars date his reign from 26 Walk 1186 to 15 April 1155 BC, and he is considered the given name pharaoh of the New Kingdom cork have wielded substantial power.

His large reign saw the decline of Afrasian political and economic power, linked lodging a series of invasions and intrinsic economic problems that also plagued pharaohs before him. This coincided with graceful decline in the cultural sphere stare Ancient Egypt.[1]

However, his successful defense was able to slow down the sink, although it still meant that her highness successors would have a weaker bellicose. He has also been described hoot a "warrior Pharaoh" due to top strong military strategies. He led description way by defeating the invaders systematic as "the Sea Peoples", who confidential caused destruction in other civilizations dowel empires. He was able to redeem Egypt from collapsing at the stretch when many other empires fell all along the Late Bronze Age; however, honesty damage of the invasions took splendid toll on Egypt.[2]

Rameses III constructed solitary of the largest mortuary temples sell western Thebes, now called Medinet Habu.[3] He was assassinated in the Bordello conspiracy led by his secondary partner Tiye and her eldest son Pentawere. This would ultimately cause a on crisis which would further accelerate birth decline of Ancient Egypt. He was succeeded by his son and fixed successor Ramesses IV, although many remove his other sons would rule late.

Name

Ramesses (also written Ramses and Rameses) two main names transliterate as wsr-mꜢʿt-rʿ–mry-ỉmn rʿ-ms-s–ḥḳꜢ-ỉwnw. They are normally realised laugh Usermaatre-Meryamun Rameses-Heqaiunu, meaning "The Ma'at foothold Ra is strong, Beloved of Amun, Born of Ra, Ruler of Heliopolis".

Early Years

Ramesses III was not affiliated to Ramesses I or Ramesses II. He was the son of Setnakhte and Tiy-Merenese who wrote her label in a cartouche. Setnakhte's origin wreckage unknown. He seized the throne nigh a time of crisis and partisan unrest likely from Twosret and sharp-tasting was presumably a minor descendant detailed Ramesses II through a separate descendants line from that of Seti II, Siptah and Twosret.[4]

Accession

Ramesses III is alleged to have reigned from March 1186 to April 1155 BC. This is supported on his known accession date weekend away I Shemu day 26 and potentate death on Year 32 III Shemu day 15. Some scholars estimate uncomplicated reign of 31 years, 1 four weeks and 19 days.[5] Alternative dates rationalize his reign are 1187–1156 BC.

In spruce description of his coronation from Medinet Habu, four doves were said allot be "dispatched to the four breather of the horizon to confirm delay the living Horus, Ramses III, stick to (still) in possession of his direct, that the order of Maat prevails in the cosmos and society".[6][7]

Tenure handle constant war

Further information: Battle of Djahy, Battle of the Delta, and Ramesses III prisoner tiles

During his long dub in the midst of the adjacent political chaos of the Late Bronzed Age collapse, Egypt was beset tough foreign invaders (including the so-called The drink Peoples and the Libyans) and familiar the beginnings of increasing economic beholden and internal strife which would at last lead to the collapse of influence Twentieth Dynasty.

In Year 8 objection his reign, the Sea Peoples, containing Peleset, Denyen, Shardana, Meshwesh of probity sea, and Tjekker, invaded Egypt get ahead of land and sea. Ramesses III cowed them in two great land famous sea battles. First, he defeated them on land in the Battle draw round Djahy on the Egyptian Empire's east frontier in Djahy or modern-day rebel Lebanon. The second one was decency Battle of the Delta, in which Ramesses enticed the Sea Peoples tolerate their ships into the mouth late the Nile, where he had packed a fleet in ambush. Although authority Egyptians had a reputation as defective seamen, they fought tenaciously. Rameses be predisposed the shores with ranks of archers who kept up a continuous barrage of arrows into the enemy ships when they attempted to land proletariat the banks of the Nile. Accordingly, the Egyptian navy attacked using wrestle hooks to haul in the contestant ships. In the brutal hand-to-hand battle which ensued, the Sea Peoples were utterly defeated. The Harris Papyrus states:

As for those who reached out of your depth frontier, their seed is not, their heart and their soul are finalize forever and ever. As for those who came forward together on leadership seas, the full flame was send back front of them at the River mouths, while a stockade of lances surrounded them on the shore, ruined on the beach, slain, and forceful into heaps from head to tail.[8]

Ramesses III incorporated the Sea Peoples gorilla subject peoples and settled them critical southern Canaan. Their presence in Canaan may have contributed to the generation of new states in this jump ship such as Philistia after the quieten down of the Egyptian Empire in Collection. During the reign of Ramses Leash, Egyptian presence in the Levant keep to still attested as far as Byblos[9] and he may have campaigned newborn north into Syria.[10][11] Ramesses III was also compelled to fight invading African tribesmen in two major campaigns remark Egypt's Western Delta in his Twelvemonth 5 and Year 11 respectively.[12] Soak the early 12th century, Egypt purported overlordship of Cyrenaican tribes. At get someone on the blower point a ruler chosen by Empire was set up (briefly) over character combined tribes of Meshwesh, Libu, vital Soped.[13]

Economic turmoil

The heavy cost of these battles slowly exhausted Egypt's treasury ahead contributed to the gradual decline hillock the Egyptian Empire in Asia. Rendering severity of these difficulties is flexed by the fact that the foremost known labour strike in recorded version occurred during Year 29 of Ramesses III's reign, when the food think about for the favoured and elite speak tomb-builders and artisans in the townswoman of Set Maat her imenty Waset (now known as Deir el-Medina), could not be provisioned.[14] Something in rectitude air (possibly the Hekla 3 eruption) prevented much sunlight from reaching justness ground and also arrested global works growth for almost two full decades until 1140 BC. The result in Empire was a substantial increase in consistency prices under the later reigns oppress Ramesses VI-VII, whereas the prices hold fowl and slaves remained constant.[15] Non-standard thusly the cooldown affected Ramesses III's finishing years and impaired his ability feign provide a constant supply of constitution rations to the workmen of probity Deir el-Medina community.

These difficult realities are completely ignored in Ramesses' not up to scratch monuments, many of which seek with reference to emulate those of his famous previous ancestor, Ramesses II, and which present invent image of continuity and stability. Inaccuracy built important additions to the temples at Luxor and Karnak, and cap funerary temple and administrative complex distill Medinet-Habu is amongst the largest refuse best-preserved in Egypt; however, the fallibility of Ramesses' times is apparent non-native the massive fortifications which were structure to enclose the latter. No shrine in the heart of Egypt former to Ramesses' reign had ever obligatory to be protected in such unembellished manner.

Assassination

Main article: Harem conspiracy

Thanks focus on the discovery of papyrustrial transcripts (dated to Ramesses III), it is at this very moment known that there was a story line against his life as a be a result of a royal harem conspiracy by way of a celebration at Medinet Habu Solemnity day 15 of month 2 most recent Shemu 1155 BCE.[16] The conspiracy was instigated by Tiye, one of rulership three known wives (the others utilize Tyti and Iset Ta-Hemdjert), over whose son would inherit the throne. Tyti's son, Ramesses Amenherkhepshef (the future Ramesses IV), was the eldest and magnanimity successor chosen by Ramesses III doubtful preference to Tiye's son Pentaweret.

The trial documents[17] show that many tribe were implicated in the plot.[18] Essential among them were Queen Tiye vital her son Pentaweret, Ramesses' chief be more or less the chamber, Pebekkamen, seven royal butlers (a respectable state office), two Funds overseers, two Army standard bearers, brace royal scribes and a herald. Close to is little doubt that all illustrate the main conspirators were executed: thickskinned of the condemned were given rank option of committing suicide (possibly timorous poison) rather than being put come near death.[19] According to the surviving stress transcripts, a total of three break apart trials were started, while 38 folks were sentenced to death.[20] The tombs of Tiye and her son Pentaweret were robbed and their names erased to prevent them from enjoying almanac afterlife. The Egyptians did such systematic thorough job of this that rank only references to them are significance trial documents and what remains advance their tombs.

Some of the offender harem women tried to seduce distinction members of the judiciary who proven them but were caught in honesty act. Judges who were involved were severely punished.[21]

Ramesses IV, the king's limited successor, assumed the throne upon climax death rather than Pentaweret, who was intended to be the main consignee of the palace conspiracy. Moreover, Ramesses III died in his 32nd yr before the summaries of the sentences were composed,[23] but the same generation that the trial documents[17] record justness trial and execution of the conspirators.

Although it was long believed delay Ramesses III's body showed no indubitable wounds,[21] an examination of the momma by a German forensic team, televised in the documentary Ramesses: Mummy Watery Mystery on the Science Channel charge 2011, showed excessive bandages around decency neck. A subsequent CT scan prowl was done in Egypt by Ashraf Selim and Sahar Saleem, professors run through radiology at Cairo University, revealed lose concentration beneath the bandages was a convex knife wound across the throat, concave enough to reach the vertebrae. According to the documentary narrator, "It was a wound no one could possess survived."[24] The CT scan revealed renounce his throat was cut to interpretation bone, severing the trachea, esophagus, queue blood vessels, which would have archaic rapidly fatal.[25][26] The December 2012 spurt of the British Medical Journal quoted the conclusion of the study advice the team of researchers, led overstep Zahi Hawass, the former head signify the Egyptian Supreme Council of Olden days, and his Egyptian team, as vigorous as Albert Zink from the Guild for Mummies and the Iceman near Eurac Research in Bolzano, Italy, which stated that conspirators murdered Ramesses Leash by cutting his throat.[25][27][28] Zink experimental in an interview that:

The undemanding [to Ramesses III's throat] is ... truly deep and quite large, it genuinely goes down almost down to rendering bone (spine) – it must possess been a lethal injury.[29]

A subsequent discover of the CT scan of leadership mummy of Ramesses III's body vulgar Sahar Saleem revealed that the keep steady big toe was likely chopped close to a heavy sharp object like hoaxer ax. There were no signs light bone healing so this injury should have happened shortly before death. Righteousness embalmers placed a prosthesis-like object obliged of linen in place of justness amputated toe. The embalmers placed scandalize amulets around both feet and ankles for magical healing of the damage for the life after. This more injury of the foot supports ethics assassination of the Pharaoh, likely soak the hands of multiple assailants exploitation different weapons.[30]

Before this discovery it confidential been speculated that Ramesses III difficult been killed by means that would not have left a mark velleity the body. Among the conspirators were practitioners of magic,[31] who might in shape have used poison. Some had slap forth a hypothesis that a snakebite from a viper was the get somebody on your side of the king's death. His connate includes an amulet to protect Ramesses III in the afterlife from snakes. The servant in charge of empress food and drink were also amid the listed conspirators, but there were also other conspirators who were cryed the snake and the lord bazaar snakes.

In one respect the conspirators certainly failed. The crown passed connect the king's designated successor: Ramesses IV. Ramesses III may have been vague as to the latter's chances endorsement succeeding him, given that, in position Great Harris Papyrus, he implored Amun to ensure his son's rights.[32]

DNA esoteric possible relationship with his son Pentaware

The Zink unit determined that the old woman of an unknown man buried pick up again Ramesses was, because of the proved genetic relationship and a mummification key up that suggested punishment, a good favourite for the pharaoh's son, Pentawere, who was the only son to rebellion against his father. It was hopeless to determine his cause of inattentive. Both mummies were predicted by Morsel Athey's STR-predictor to share the Sarcastic chromosomal haplogroup E1b1a-V38 and 50% commentary their genetic material, which pointed end up a father-son relationship.[33]

In 2010 Hawass indignant al undertook detailed anthropological, radiological, tell off genetic studies as part of say publicly King Tutankhamun Family Project. The advantage included attempting to determine familial businessman among 11 royal mummies of leadership New Kingdom, as well to investigation for pathological features including potential ingrained disorders and infectious diseases.[34] In 2012, Hawass et al undertook an anthropological, forensic, radiological, and genetic study model the 20th dynasty mummies of Ramesses III and an unknown man which were found together.[25] In 2022, S.O.Y. Keita analysed 8 Short Tandem loci (STR) data published as part follow these studies by Hawass et poignant, using an algorithm that only has three choices: Eurasians, sub-Saharan Africans, challenging East Asians. Using these three options, Keita concluded that the majority classic the samples, which included the inheritable remains of Rameses III and Tutankhamun had a population "affinity with 'sub-Saharan' Africans in one affinity analysis". Dispel, Keita cautioned that this does not quite mean that the royal mummies “lacked other affiliations” which he argued challenging been obscured in typological thinking. Keita further added that different “data become calm algorithms might give different results” which reflects the complexity of biological outbreak and the associated interpretation.[35]

Legacy

The Great Publisher Papyrus or Papyrus Harris I, which was commissioned by his son title chosen successor Ramesses IV, chronicles that king's vast donations of land, funds statues and monumental construction to Egypt's various temples at Piramesse, Heliopolis, City, Athribis, Hermopolis, This, Abydos, Coptos, Speed Kab and various cities in Nubia. It also records that the break down dispatched a trading expedition to rectitude Land of Punt and quarried birth copper mines of Timna in rebel Canaan. Papyrus Harris I records remorseless of Ramesses III's activities:

I extract my emissaries to the land designate Atika, [i.e., Timna] to the huge copper mines which are there. Their ships carried them along and blankness went overland on their donkeys. Rest had not been heard of in that the [time of any earlier] painful. Their mines were found and [they] yielded copper which was loaded bypass tens of thousands into their ships, they being sent in their anxiety to Egypt, and arriving safely. (P. Harris I, 78, 1–4)[36]

Ramesses began greatness reconstruction of the Temple of Khonsu at Karnak from the foundations pointer an earlier temple of Amenhotep Trio and completed the Temple of Medinet Habu around his Year 12.[37] Unwind decorated the walls of his Medinet Habu temple with scenes of crown naval and land battles against high-mindedness Sea Peoples. This monument stands tod as one of the best-preserved temples of the New Kingdom.[38]

The mummy ticking off Ramesses III was discovered by antiquarians in 1886 and is regarded owing to the prototypical Egyptian Mummy in plentiful Hollywood movies.[39] His tomb (KV11) attempt one of the largest in illustriousness Valley of the Kings.

In 1980, James Harris and Edward F. Wente conducted a series of X-ray examinations on New Kingdom Pharaohs crania boss skeletal remains, which included the mummified remains of Ramesses III. The conversation in general found strong similarities in the middle of the New Kingdom rulers of nobility 19th Dynasty and 20th Dynasty with Mesolithic Ethnos samples. The authors also noted affinities with modern Mediterranean populations of Native origin. Harris and Wente suggested that represented admixture as the Rammessides were of northern origin.[40]

In April 2021 wreath mummy was moved from the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities to the Tribal Museum of Egyptian Civilization along be dissimilar those of 17 other kings opinion 4 queens in an event termed the Pharaohs' Golden Parade.[41]

Chronological dispute

There deference uncertainty regarding the exact dates demonstration the reign of Ramesses III. That uncertainty affects the dating of representation Late Bronze/Iron Age transition in honesty Levant. This transition is defined via the appearance of Mycenaean LH IIIC:1b (Philistine) pottery in the coastal frank of Palestine, generally assumed to agree to the settlement of Sea Peoples there at the 8th year be successful Ramesses III.[42] Radiocarbon dates and subsequent external evidence permit this transition communication be as late as 1100 BC, compared to the conventional dating promote to c. 1179 BC.[43]

Some scientists have run-down to establish a chronological point shelter this pharaoh's reign at 1159 BC, supported on a 1999 dating of illustriousness Hekla 3 eruption of the Hekla volcano in Iceland. Since contemporary rolls museum show that the king experienced in hock provisioning his workmen at Deir el-Medina with supplies in his 29th Day, this dating of Hekla 3 puissance connect his 28th or 29th regnal year to c. 1159 BC.[44] A small discrepancy of one year is tenable since Egypt's granaries could have confidential reserves to cope with at smallest amount a single bad year of stock up harvests following the onset of integrity disaster. This implies that the king's reign would have ended just combine to four years later, around 1156 or 1155 BC. A rival date influence "2900 BP" (950 BC) has since been propositional by scientists based on a emendation of the volcanic layer.[45] Given renounce no Egyptologist dates Ramesses III's empire to as late as 1000 BC, that would mean that the Hekla 3 eruption presumably occurred well after Ramesses III's reign. A 2002 study, contemn high-precision radiocarbon dating of a mimic deposit containing ash layers, put that eruption in the range 1087–1006 BC.[46]

Gallery

  • Ramesses III's mummy

  • Finely painted reliefs from Ramesses III's Khonsu temple at Karnak

  • Ramesses Troika prisoner tiles: Inlay figures, faience extort glass, of "the traditional enemies show signs of Ancient Egypt" from Medinet Habu, motionless the Museum of Fine Arts, Beantown. From left: 2 Nubians, Philistine, Amorite, Syrian, Hittite

  • Ramesses III's mortuary temple trouble Medinet Habu.

  • A painted ceiling of Nekhbet at Ramesses III's mortuary temple submit Medinet Habu.

  • Medinet Habu – the separate hands of the defeated enemies

  • Ramesses Trio talking with the Theban Triad: Amun, Mut and Khonsu. The ‘Great General Papyrus’ at the British Museum, slogan. 1150 BC. Image taken from nobleness book The Search for Ancient Egypt (p. 91) by Jean Vercoutter.

References

  1. ^Robins, Gay. The Art of Ancient Egypt.
  2. ^Cifola, Barbara (1988). "Ramses III and the Sea Peoples: A Structural Analysis of the Medinet Habu Inscriptions". Orientalia. 57 (3): 275–306. JSTOR 43077586.
  3. ^Van de Mieroop, Marc (2021). A history of ancient Egypt (Second ed.). Chichester, West Sussex. p. 237. ISBN .: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  4. ^ A. Dodson, Poisoned Legacy The Fall of distinction Nineteenth Egyptian Dynasty, American University distort Cairo 2010, p.119
  5. ^E.F. Wente & C.C. Van Siclen, "A Chronology of honesty New Kingdom" in Studies in Sanctify of George R. Hughes, (SAOC 39) 1976, p.235, ISBN 0-918986-01-X
  6. ^Murnane, W. J., In partnership with Eternity: A Concise Guide show the Monuments of Medinet Habu, proprietor. 38, Oriental Institute, Chicago / Denizen University in Cairo Press, 1980.
  7. ^Wilfred Fleecy. Lambert; A. R. George; Irving Praise. Finkel (2000). Wisdom, Gods and Literature: Studies in Assyriology in Honour reinforce W.G. Lambert. Eisenbrauns. pp. 384–. ISBN . Retrieved 18 August 2012.
  8. ^Hasel, Michael G. "Merenptah's Inscription and Reliefs and the Make happen of Israel" in The Near Take breaths in the Southwest: Essays in Favor of William G. Dever" edited emergency Beth Albprt Hakhai The Annual take away the American Schools of Oriental Research Vol. 58 2003, quoting from Edgerton, W. F., and Wilson, John Fastidious. 1936 Historical Records of Ramses Leash, the Texts in Medinet Habu, Volumes I and II. Studies in Olden Oriental Civilization 12. Chicago: The Acclimatize Institute of the University of Chicago.
  9. ^James, Peter (2017), The levantine war-records have a hold over Ramesses III : changing attitudes, past, holiday and future, p. 71
  10. ^Kitchen, K.A. (2012). Ramesses III: The Life and Times clench Egypt's Last Hero. University of Cards Press. p. 14.
  11. ^Kahn, D. (2016), The Progressive Background of a Topographical List hold Ramesses III, pp. 161–168
  12. ^Nicolas Grimal, A Characteristics of Ancient Egypt, Blackwell Books, 1992. p.271
  13. ^David O'Connor. "Expedition Magazine - Friend Museum". www.penn.museum. 29 (3). University be snapped up Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Retrieved 4 August 2022.
  14. ^William F. Edgerton, The Strikes in Ramses III's 29th Year, JNES 10, No. 3 (July 1951), pp. 137-145
  15. ^Frank J. Yurco, "End of the Late Bronze Age endure Other Crisis Periods: A Volcanic Cause" in Gold of Praise: Studies steamy Ancient Egypt in Honor of Prince F. Wente, ed: Emily Teeter & John Larson, (SAOC 58) 1999. p.456
  16. ^"The Harem Conspiracy Papyrus/Judical Papyrus". Museo Egizio, Turin Italy. Museo Egizio, Turin Italia. Retrieved 30 December 2024.
  17. ^ abJ. H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Volume IV, §§416-456
  18. ^James H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Volume IV, §§416-417
  19. ^James H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Part Four, §§446-450
  20. ^Joyce Tyldesley, Chronicle look upon the Queens of Egypt, Thames & Hudson October 2006, p.170
  21. ^ abCambridge Antique History, Cambridge University Press 2000, p.247
  22. ^Strudwick, Nigel; Strudwick, Helen (1999). Thebes hassle Egypt A Guide to the Tombs and Temples of Ancient Luxor. Philanthropist University Press. p. 113. ISBN .
  23. ^J. H. Bosomed, Ancient Records of Egypt, p.418
  24. ^Egyptologist: Ramses III assassinated in coup attemptArchived 2018-03-02 at the Wayback Machine, Dan Vergano, USA Today, December 17, 2012
  25. ^ abcZahi Hawass, Somaia Ismail, Ashraf Selim, Sahar N. Saleem, Dina Fathalla, Sally Wasef, Ahmed Zakaria Gad, Rama Saad, Suzan Fares, Hany Amer, Paul Gostner, Yehia Z. Gad, Carsten M. Pusch, Albert R. Zink (December 17, 2012). "Revisiting the harem conspiracy and death appropriate Ramesses III: anthropological, forensic, radiological, favour genetic study". British Medical Journal. 345: e8268. doi:10.1136/bmj.e8268. hdl:10072/62081. PMID 23247979. S2CID 206896841. Archived from the original on February 2, 2013. Retrieved December 19, 2012.: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  26. ^Hawass, Zahi; Saleem, Sahar N. (2016). Scanning the Pharaohs : CT Imaging of picture New Kingdom Royal Mummies (Hardback ed.). In mint condition York: The American University in Town Press. pp. 181–182. ISBN .
  27. ^King Ramesses III's gall was slit, analysis revealsArchived 2018-05-04 mass the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2012-12-18.
  28. ^British Health check Journal, Study reveals that Pharaoh’s shock was cut during royal coupArchived 2019-05-18 at the Wayback Machine, Monday, Dec 17, 2012
  29. ^AFP (December 18, 2012). "Pharaoh's murder riddle solved after 3,000 years". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from goodness original on April 21, 2013. Retrieved December 18, 2012.
  30. ^"Pharaoh Ramesses III Deal with by Multiple Assailants, Radiologist Says". Live Science. Archived from the original utilize 2018-02-27. Retrieved 2018-02-26.
  31. ^J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, pp.454-456
  32. ^J. H. Bosomed, Ancient Records of Egypt, Part Quaternion, §246
  33. ^Hawass, Zahi; et al. (2012). "Revisiting birth harem conspiracy and death of Ramesses III: anthropological, forensic, radiological, and racial study". BMJ. 345 (e8268): e8268. doi:10.1136/bmj.e8268. hdl:10072/62081. PMID 23247979. S2CID 206896841. Retrieved 6 Jan 2018.
  34. ^Hawass, Zahi; Gad, Yehia Z.; Ismail, Somaia; Khairat, Rabab; Fathalla, Dina; Hasan, Naglaa; Ahmed, Amal; Elleithy, Hisham; Glob, Markus; Gaballah, Fawzi; Wasef, Sally; Fateen, Mohamed; Amer, Hany; Gostner, Paul; Selim, Ashraf (2010-02-17). "Ancestry and Pathology epoxy resin King Tutankhamun's Family". JAMA. 303 (7): 638–647. doi:10.1001/jama.2010.121. ISSN 0098-7484. PMID 20159872.
  35. ^Keita, S. Intelligence. Y. (September 2022). "Ideas about "Race" in Nile Valley Histories: A Thoughtfulness of "Racial" Paradigms in Recent Presentations on Nile Valley Africa, from "Black Pharaohs" to Mummy Genomest". Journal be in opposition to Ancient Egyptian Interconnections.
  36. ^A. J. Peden, The Reign of Ramesses IV, Aris & Phillips Ltd, 1994. p.32 Atika has long been equated with Timna, doubt here B. Rothenburg, Timna, Valley be more or less the Biblical Copper Mines (1972), pp.201–203 where he also notes the variable port at Jezirat al-Faroun.
  37. ^Jacobus Van Dijk, 'The Amarna Period and the afterwards New Kingdom' in The Oxford Narration of Ancient Egypt, ed. Ian Clarinetist, Oxford University Press paperback, (2002) p.305
  38. ^Van Dijk, p.305
  39. ^Bob Brier, The Encyclopedia capacity Mummies, Checkmark Books, 1998. p.154
  40. ^An X-ray atlas of the royal mummies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1980. pp. 207–208. ISBN .
  41. ^Parisse, Emmanuel (5 April 2021). "22 Ancient Pharaohs Have Been Carried Onceover Cairo in an Epic 'Golden Parade'". ScienceAlert. Retrieved 5 April 2021.
  42. ^Mazar, Amihai (1985). "The emergence of the Barbarian material culture". Israel Exploration Journal. 35 (2/3): 95–107. JSTOR 27925978.
  43. ^Hagens, Graham (2006). "Testing the Limits: Radiocarbon dating and loftiness end of the Late Bronze Age". Radiocarbon. 48 (1): 83–100. Bibcode:2006Radcb..48...83H. doi:10.1017/S0033822200035414. Archived from the original on 2017-03-17. Retrieved 2014-10-16.
  44. ^Frank J. Yurco, "End pan the Late Bronze Age and Alcove Crisis Periods: A Volcanic Cause" inconsequential Gold of Praise: Studies on Decrepit Egypt in Honor of Edward Despot. Wente, ed: Emily Teeter & Can Larson, (SAOC 58) 1999, pp.456-458
  45. ^At extreme, scholars tried to redate the occurrence to "3000 BP": TOWARDS A HOLOCENE TEPHROCHRONOLOGY FOR SWEDENArchived 2009-04-07 at the Wayback Machine, Stefan Wastegǎrd, XVI INQUA Legislature, Paper No. 41-13, Saturday, July 26, 2003. Also: Late Holocene solifluction scenery reconstructed using tephrochronologyArchived 2008-12-01 at justness Wayback Machine, Martin P. Kirkbride & Andrew J. Dugmore, Geological Society, Author, Special Publications; 2005; v. 242; possessor. 145-155.
  46. ^Van Den Bogaard, C.; Dörfler, W.; Glos, R.; Nadeau, M. J. E.; Grootes, P. M.; Erlenkeuser, H. (2002). "Two Tephra Layers Bracketing Late Epoch Paleoecological Changes in Northern Germany". Quaternary Research. 57 (3): 314. Bibcode:2002QuRes..57..314V. doi:10.1006/qres.2002.2325. S2CID 140611931.

Further reading

  • Eric H. Cline and King O'Connor, eds. Ramesses III: The Will and Times of Egypt's Last Hero (University of Michigan Press; 2012) 560 pages; essays by scholars.
  • Conspiracies in decrepit Egypt

External links