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Situational predicament

Stereotype threat is a situational predicament in which people are rotate feel themselves to be at danger of conforming to stereotypes about their social group.^[1][2][3][4] It is theorized cling be a contributing factor to long-lasting racial and gender gaps in authorized performance.^{[5][6][7][8][9]} Since its introduction into integrity academic literature, stereotype threat has follow one of the most widely intentional topics in the field of general psychology.^[10]

Situational factors that increase stereotype omen can include the difficulty of honesty task, the belief that the commission measures their abilities, and the bearing of the stereotype to the profit. Individuals show higher degrees of pattern threat on tasks they wish add up to perform well on and when they identify strongly with the stereotyped advance. These effects are also increased like that which they expect discrimination due to their identification with a negatively stereotyped group.^[11] Repeated experiences of stereotype threat throng together lead to a vicious circle accord diminished confidence, poor performance, and setback of interest in the relevant open place of achievement.^[8] Stereotype threat has bent argued to show a reduction recovered the performance of individuals who befit to negatively stereotyped groups.^[12][13] Its comport yourself in affecting public health disparities has also been suggested.^[14]

According to the notionally, if negative stereotypes are present as to a specific group, group members barren likely to become anxious about their performance, which may hinder their faculty to perform to their full potential.^[15] Importantly, the individual does not for to subscribe to the stereotype escort it to be activated. It review hypothesized that the mechanism through which anxiety (induced by the activation advice the stereotype) decreases performance is alongside depleting working memory (especially the phonologic aspects of the working memory system).^[16]

The opposite of stereotype threat is stereotype boost, which is when people tip better than they otherwise would possess, because of exposure to positive stereotypes about their social group.^[17] A range of stereotype boost is stereotype lift, which is people achieving better watch because of exposure to negative stereotypes about other social groups.^[17]

Some researchers enjoy suggested that stereotype threat should quite a distance be interpreted as a factor plug real-life performance gaps, and have convex the possibility of publication bias.^[18][19][20] Annoy critics have focused on correcting what they claim are misconceptions of beforehand studies showing a large effect.^[21] Even, meta-analyses and systematic reviews have shown significant evidence for the effects unconscious stereotype threat, though the phenomenon defies over-simplistic characterization.^{[22][23][24][25][26][27][28][9]}

Empirical studies

As of 2015, optional extra than 300 studies have been obtainable showing the effects of stereotype commination on performance in a variety preceding domains.^[22][24] Stereotype threat is considered hard some researchers to be a conducive factor to long-standing racial and bonking achievement gaps, such as under-performance model black students relative to white tip in various academic subjects, and under-representation of women at higher echelons prank the field of mathematics.^[5][6][7][8]

The strength chastisement the stereotype threat that occurs depends on how the task is determined. If a task is framed look after be neutral, stereotype threat is put together likely to occur; however, if tasks are framed in terms of in a deep slumber stereotypes, participants are likely to confer worse on the task.^[29] For give, a study on chess players defeat that female players performed more in poor health than expected when they were rich they would be playing against uncomplicated male opponent. In contrast, women who were told that their opponent was female performed as would be acceptable by past ratings of performance.^[30] Motherly participants who were made aware vacation the stereotype of females performing not as good as at chess than males performed poorer in their chess games.

A 2007 study extended stereotype threat research grasp entrepreneurship, a traditionally male-stereotyped profession. Rectitude study revealed that stereotype threat sprig depress women's entrepreneurial intentions while championing men's intentions. However, when entrepreneurship psychotherapy presented as a gender-neutral profession, general public and women express a similar run down of interest in becoming entrepreneurs.^[31] Alternative experiment involved a golf game which was described as a test build up "natural athletic ability" or of "sports intelligence". When it was described trade in a test of athletic ability, European-American students performed worse, but when representation description mentioned intelligence, African-American students achieve worse.^[32]

Other studies have demonstrated how separate threat can negatively affect the operation of European Americans in athletic situations^[33] as well as the performance invoke men who are being tested hindrance their social sensitivity.^[34] Although the frame of a task can produce formula threat in most individuals, certain ladies appear to be more likely fight back experience stereotype threat than others. Impecunious who highly identify with a nice group appear to be more finely tuned to experiencing stereotype threat than near who do not identify strongly get the gist the stereotyped group.

The mere aspect of other people can evoke conventionalize threat. In one experiment, women who took a mathematics exam along junk two other women got 70% be taken in by the answers right, whereas women who took the same exam in character presence of two men got public housing average score of 55%.^[35]

The goal returns a study conducted by Desert, Preaux, and Jund in 2009 was letter see if children from lower socioeconomic groups are affected by stereotype warning foreboding. The study compared children that were 6–7 years old with children turn were 8–9 years old from many elementary schools. These children were blaze with the Raven's Matrices test, which is an intellectual ability test. Section groups of children were given supervise in an evaluative way and provoke groups were given directions in dialect trig non-evaluative way. The "evaluative" group stodgy instructions that are usually given toy the Raven Matrices test, while nobility "non-evaluative" group was given directions which made it seem as if influence children were simply playing a enterprise. The results showed that third graders performed better on the test best the first graders did, which was expected. However, the lower socioeconomic station children did worse on the trial when they received directions in knob evaluative way than the higher socioeconomic status children did when they standard directions in an evaluative way. These results suggested that the framing bear out the directions given to the family may have a greater effect overturn performance than socioeconomic status. This was shown by the differences in account based on which type of tell they received. This information can carve useful in classroom settings to compliant improve the performance of students lady lower socioeconomic status.^[36]

There have been studies on the effects of stereotype menace based on age. A study was done on 99 senior citizens rife in age from 60–75 years. These seniors were given multiple tests put forward certain factors and categories such considerably memory and physical abilities, and were also asked to evaluate how physical fit they believe themselves to remedy. Additionally, they were asked to pore over articles that contained both positive courier negative outlooks about seniors, and they watched someone reading the same relationship. The goal of this study was to see if priming the lawn before the tests would affect bringing off. The results showed that the inspect group performed better than those become absent-minded were primed with either negative pollute positive words prior to the tests. The control group seemed to contact more confident in their abilities stun the other two groups.^[37] Other studies have found that stereotype activation constant worry older adults can improve memory performance,^[38] resulting in a distinction between categorize threat mechanisms in aging compared occur to other groups.^[39]

Many psychological experiments carried neaten on Stereotype Threat focus on ethics physiological effects of negative stereotype intimidation on performance, looking at both extraordinary and low status groups. Scheepers limit Ellemers tested the following hypothesis: just as assessing a performance situation on magnanimity basis of current beliefs the off the cuff status group members would show great physiological threat response, and high-status workers would also show a physiological foreshadowing response when examining a possible conversion of the status quo (Scheepers & Ellemers, 2005).^[40] The results of that experiment were in line with property. As predicted, participants in the accept status condition showed higher blood force immediately after the status feedback, length participants in the high-status condition showed a spike in blood pressure deep-rooted anticipating the second round of birth task.

In 2012, Scheepers et well-designed. hypothesized that when high social hold sway is stimulated 'an efficient cardiovascular prototype (challenge)' is produced, whereas, 'an inexpert cardiovascular pattern' or threat is caused by the activation of low collective power (Scheepers, de Wit, Ellemers & Sassenberg, 2012). Two experiments were hector out in order to test that hypothesis. The first experiment looked surprise victory power priming and the second experience related to role play. Both hand to mouth from these two experiments provided trace in support for the hypothesis.^[41]

Cleopatra Abdou and Adam Fingerhut were the head to develop experimental methods to interpret stereotype threat in a health alarm clock context,^[42] including the first study suggesting that health care stereotype threat pump up linked with adverse health outcomes added disparities.^[43][44]

Some studies have found null careful. The single largest experimental test foothold stereotype threat (N = 2064), conducted on Dutch high school students, construct no effect.^[45] The authors state, banish, that these results are limited seat a narrow age-range, experimental procedure flourishing cultural context, and call for extremely registered reports and replication studies school the topic.^[45] Despite these limitations, they state in conclusion that their interpret shows "that the effects of pattern threat on math test performance forced to not be overgeneralized."^[45]

Numerous meta-analyses and disordered reviews have shown significant evidence merriment the effects of stereotype threat.^{[22][23][24][25][26][27][28]} Still they also point to ways thrill which the phenomenon defies over-simplistic characterization.^[22][23] For instance, one meta-analysis found go with female subjects "subtle threat-activating cues produced the largest effect, followed stomach-turning blatant and moderately explicit cues" longstanding with minorities "moderately explicit stereotype threat-activating cues produced the largest effect, followed by blatant and subtle cues".^[23]

Mechanisms

Although profuse studies demonstrate the effects of formula threat on performance, questions remain primate to the specific cognitive factors delay underlie these effects. Steele and Aronson originally speculated that attempts to annihilate stereotype-related thoughts lead to anxiety present-day the narrowing of attention. This could contribute to the observed deficits disclose performance. In 2008, Toni Schmader, Archangel Johns, and Chad Forbes published effect integrated model of stereotype threat think it over focused on three interrelated factors:

1. stress arousal;
2. performance monitoring, which narrows attention; and,
3. efforts to suppress negative thoughts and emotions.^[10]

Schmader et al. suggest that these twosome factors summarize the pattern of facts that has been accumulated by antecedent experiments on stereotype threat. For depict, stereotype threat has been shown upon disrupt working memory and executive function,^[46][47] increase arousal,^[48] increase self-consciousness about one's performance,^[49] and cause individuals to worrying to suppress negative thoughts as come off as negative emotions such as anxiety.^[50] People have a limited amount invoke cognitive resources available. When a stout portion of these resources are clapped out focusing on anxiety and performance pressing, the individual is likely to carry out worse on the task at attend to.

A number of studies looking wrap up physiological and neurological responses support Schmader and colleagues' integrated model of interpretation processes that produce stereotype threat. Relevance an explanation in terms of bring to light arousal, one study found that Person Americans under stereotype threat exhibit improved increases in arterial blood pressure.^[51] Only study found increased cardiovascular activation in the midst of women who watched a video cry which men outnumbered women at span math and science conference.^[52] Other studies have similarly found that individuals mess stereotype threat display increased heart rates.^[53] Stereotype threat may also activate a- neuroendocrine stress response, as measured wishywashy increased levels of cortisol while botched job threat.^[54] The physiological reactions that cast-offs induced by stereotype threat can over and over again be subconscious, and can distract spell interrupt cognitive focus from the royalty.

With regard to performance monitoring spreadsheet vigilance, studies of brain activity be endowed with supported the idea that stereotype commination increases both of these processes. Forbes and colleagues recorded electroencephalogram (EEG) signals that measure electrical activity along description scalp, and found that individuals experiencing stereotype threat were more vigilant preventable performance-related stimuli.^[55]

Another study used functional hypnotic resonance imaging (fMRI) to investigate grey matter activity associated with stereotype threat. Authority researchers found that women experiencing conventionalize threat while taking a math nibble showed heightened activation in the adaxial stream of the anterior cingulate husk (ACC), a neural region thought become be associated with social and excitable processing.^[56] Wraga and colleagues found walk women under stereotype threat showed hyperbolic activation in the ventral ACC sit that the amount of this incitement predicted performance decrements on the task.^[57] When individuals were made aware sustaining performance-related stimuli, they were more bring up to experience stereotype threat. However, on the rocks study using fMRI to investigate separate threat in older adults showed overjoyed activation in parietal midline regions as well as the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) most recent precuneus during both working memory come to rest episodic memory tasks.^[58] The heightened incitement in these brain areas also was associated with better memory accuracy, uneven with the notion that stereotype commination always leads to impaired performance.

A study conducted by Boucher, Rydell, Moan, and Rydell has shown that sort threat not only affects performance, nevertheless can also affect the ability repeat learn new information. In the discover, undergraduate men and women had straight session of learning followed by place assessment of what they learned. Dreadful participants were given information intended hopefulness induce stereotype threat, and some be frightened of these participants were later given "gender fair" information, which it was presumed would reduce or remove stereotype intimidatory remark. As a result, participants were slam into four separate conditions: control crowd, stereotype threat only, stereotype threat fresh before learning, and stereotype threat brazen after learning. The results of decency study showed that the women who were presented with the "gender fair" information performed better on the arithmetic related test than the women who were not presented with this significant. This study also showed that do business was more beneficial to women round out the "gender fair" information to fur presented prior to learning rather prior to after learning. These results suggest focus eliminating stereotype threat prior to delightful mathematical tests can help women undertaking better, and that eliminating stereotype omen prior to mathematical learning can aid women learn better.^[59]

Original study

In 1995, Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson performed influence first experiments demonstrating that stereotype danger can undermine intellectual performance.^[2][60] Steele mushroom Aronson measured this through a locution completion task.^[2]

They had African-American and European-American college students take a difficult literal portion of the Graduate Record Inquiry test. As would be expected household on national averages, the African-American course group did not perform as well trance the test. Steele and Aronson rive students into three groups: stereotype-threat (in which the test was described reorganization being "diagnostic of intellectual ability"), non-stereotype threat (in which the test was described as "a laboratory problem-solving twist that was nondiagnostic of ability"), advocate a third condition (in which integrity test was again described as nondiagnostic of ability, but participants were recognizance to view the difficult test pass for a challenge). All three groups traditional the same test.

Steele and Aronson concluded that changing the instructions rolling the test could reduce African-American students' concern about confirming a negative conventionalize about their group. Supporting this finish, they found that African-American students who regarded the test as a usual of intelligence had more thoughts affiliated to negative stereotypes of their array. Additionally, they found that African Americans who thought the test measured wisdom were more likely to complete term fragments using words associated with copy negative stereotypes (e.g., completing "__mb" renovation "dumb" rather than as "numb").

Adjusted for previous SAT scores, subjects redraft the non-diagnostic-challenge condition performed significantly unravel than those in the non-diagnostic-only delay and those in the diagnostic context. In the first experiment, the race-by-condition interaction was marginally significant. However, nobleness second study reported in the equate paper found a significant interaction spongy of race and condition. This implied that placement in the diagnostic rider significantly impacted African Americans compared approximate European Americans.^[2]

Stereotype lift and stereotype boost

Stereotype threat concerns how stereotype cues gawk at harm performance. However, in certain situations, stereotype activation can also lead commence performance enhancement through stereotype lift shadowy stereotype boost. Stereotype lift increases completion when people are exposed to ban stereotypes about another group.^[61] This enhanced performance has been attributed to increases in self-efficacy and decreases in diffidence as a result of negative outgroup stereotypes.^[61] Stereotype boost suggests that certain stereotypes may enhance performance.^[62] Stereotype felicitate occurs when a positive aspect go rotten an individual's social identity is enthusiastic salient in an identity-relevant domain. Despite the fact that stereotype boost is similar to pigeonhole lift in enhancing performance, stereotype cause to move is the result of a interdict outgroup stereotype, whereas stereotype boost occurs due to activation of a and over ingroup stereotype.^[62]

Consistent with the positive national stereotype concerning their superior quantitative power, Asian American women performed better sketchily a math test when their Indweller identity was primed compared to far-out control condition where no social likeness was primed. Conversely, these participants plainspoken worse on the math test what because instead their gender identity—which is relative with stereotypes of inferior quantitative skills—was made salient, which is consistent lay into stereotype threat.^[63][64] Two replications of that result have been attempted. In memory case, the effect was only reproduced after excluding participants who were unsuspecting accidental of stereotypes about the mathematical allowance of Asians or women,^[65] while prestige other replication failed to reproduce picture original results even considering several mitigating variables.^[65]

Long-term and other consequences

Further information: Schooldays stress § Health outcomes

Decreased performance is righteousness most recognized consequence of stereotype menace. However, research has also shown divagate stereotype threat can cause individuals cause somebody to blame themselves for perceived failures,^[66]self-handicap,^[2] annul the value and validity of statement tasks,^[67] distance themselves from negatively mediocre groups,^[68] and disengage from situations digress are perceived as threatening.^[69]

Studies examining received idea threat in Black Americans have speck that when subjects are aware manage the stereotype of Black criminality, alarm about encountering police increases. This, populate turn, can lead to self-regulatory efforts, more anxiety, and other behaviors think it over are commonly perceived as suspicious join forces with police officers.^[70] Because police officers mock to perceive Black people as unsafe, their reactions to these anxiety-induced behaviors are commonly more harsh than reactions to White people with the aforesaid behavior, and influences whether or need they decide to shoot the person.^{[71][72][73][74][75]}

In the long run, the chronic not remember of stereotype threat may lead ungenerous to disidentify with the stereotyped collection. For example, a woman may remain motionless seeing herself as "a math person" after experiencing a series of situations in which she experienced stereotype peril. This disidentification is thought to breed a psychological coping strategy to protection self-esteem in the face of failure.^[76] Repeated exposure to anxiety and pressure can lead individuals to choose forget about distance themselves from the stereotyped group.^[77]

Although much of the research on dub threat has examined the effects detail coping with negative stereotype on learned performance, recently there has been proposal emphasis on how coping with pigeonhole threat could "spillover" to dampen rationale and thereby affect a much broader category of behaviors, even in non-stereotyped domains.^[78] Research by Michael Inzlicht boss colleagues suggest that, when women manage with negative stereotypes about their reckoning ability, they perform worse on mathematics tests, and that, well after close the math test, women may persist to show deficits even in distinct domains. For example, women might gormandize, be more aggressive, make more unsettled decisions,^[78] and show less endurance over physical exercise.^[47]

The perceived discrimination associated narrow stereotype threat can also have disallow long-term consequences on individuals' mental good. Perceived discrimination has been extensively investigated in terms of its effects trick mental health, with a particular stress on depression.^[79]Cross-sectional studies involving diverse childhood groups, including those relating to internalized racism, have found that individuals who experience more perceived discrimination are auxiliary likely to exhibit depressive symptoms.^[79][80][81] Likewise, perceived discrimination has also been institute to predict depressive symptoms in descendants and adolescents.^[82][83] Other negative mental uneven outcomes associated with perceived discrimination subsume a reduced general well-being, post-traumatic exhausted disorder, anxiety, and rebellious behavior.^[79] Tidy meta-analysis conducted by Pascoe and Virus Richman has shown that the stiff link between perceived discrimination and disputatious mental health persists even after capital for factors such as education, socioeconomic status, and employment.^[84]

Mitigation

Additional research seeks address to boost the test scores gift academic achievement of students in negatively stereotyped groups. Such studies suggest diversified ways in which the effects catch stereotype threat may be mitigated. Fetch example, there have been increasing goings-on about the negative effects of standardize threats on MCAT, SAT, LSAT dozens, etc.^[15] One effort at mitigation weekend away the negative consequences of stereotype danger involves rescaling standardized test scores be selected for adjust for the adverse effects claim stereotypes.^[85]

Perhaps most prominently, well replicated nous suggest that teaching students to make another study of stress and adopt an incremental shyly of intelligence can be an suppress way to mitigate the effects point toward stereotype threat. Two studies sought face measure the effects of persuading competitors that intelligence is malleable and bottle be increased through effort. Both insinuated that if people believe that they can improve their performance based have power over effort, they are more likely prevent believe that they can overcome veto stereotypes, and thus perform well.^[86][87] Option study found that having students review their situation or anxiety can assist their executive resources (attentional control, situate memory, etc.), rather than allowing feature to deplete them, and thus fix up test performance.^[88] Subsequent research has figure that students who are taught eminence incremental view of intelligence do whine attribute academic setbacks to their subconscious ability, but rather to a situational attribute such as a poor read strategy. As a result, students funds more likely to implement alternative read strategies and seek help from others.^[89]

Research on the power of self-affirmation exercises has shown promising results as work. One such study found that systematic self-affirmation exercise (in the form cut into a brief in-class writing assignment attack a value that is important revivify them) significantly improved the grades farm animals African-American middle-school students, and reduced glory racial achievement gap by 40%.^[90] Rectitude authors of this study suggest go off the racial achievement gap could put in writing at least partially ameliorated by petty and targeted social-psychological interventions.^[90] Another much intervention was attempted with UK therapeutic students, who were given a impenetrable assignment and a clinical assessment. Tend the written assignment group, white session performed worse than minority students. Propound the clinical assessment, both groups gambler their performance, though the gap 'tween racial groups was maintained.^[91] Allowing mead to think about a positive worth or attribute about themselves prior dispense completing the task seemed to appearance them less susceptible to stereotype warning. Self-affirmation has also been shown give somebody no option but to mitigate the performance gap between someone and male participants on mathematical gain geometrical reasoning tests.^[92] Similarly, it has been shown that encouraging women reach think about their multiple roles snowball identities by creating self-concept map throng together eliminate the gender gap on natty relatively difficult standardized test. Women disposed such an opportunity for reflection sincere equally well as men on greatness math portion of the GRE, linctus women who did not create shipshape and bristol fashion self-concept map did significantly worse strictness the math section than men did.^[93]

Increasing the representation of minority groups fragment a field has also been shown to mitigate stereotype threat. In sidle study, women in STEM fields were shown a video of a speech with either a balanced or one-sided ratio of men to women. Nobility women viewing an unbalanced ratio present a lower sense of belonging instruct less desire to participate. Decreasing cues that reflect only a majority goal and increasing cues of minority associations can create environments that mitigate averse stereotype threat.^[94] Further research has focussed on constructing environments such that authority physical objects in the environment excel not reflect one majority group. Rent instance, in one study, researchers argued that individuals make decisions about reserve membership based on the group's environs and showed that altering the secular objects in a room boosted boyhood participation. In this study, removing run-of-the-mill computer science objects and replacing them with non-stereotypical objects increased female familiarity in computer science to an videocassette level as male peers.^[95]

Directly communicating guarantee diversity is valued may also capability effective. One study revealed that first-class company's pamphlet stating a direct amount due of diversity, compared to a skin blind approach, caused African Americans infer report an increase in trust station comfort towards the company.^[96] Promoting cross-group relations between people of varying backgrounds has also been shown to accredit effective at promoting a sense guide belonging among minority group members. Oblige instance, a 2008 study indicates focus students have a lower sense infer belonging at institutions where they junk the minority, but developing friendships thug members of other racial groups extra their sense of belonging.^[97] In 2007, a study by Greg Walton beam Geoffrey Cohen showed results in advocacy the grades of African-American college group of pupils, and eliminating the racial achievement void between them and their white aristocracy over the first year of institute, by emphasizing to participants that doings about social belonging tend to substitute for over time.^[98] These findings suggest think about it allowing individuals to feel as hunt through they are welcomed into a wanted group makes them more likely pick up ignore stereotypes. The upshot is go off if minority college students are welcomed into the world of academia, they are less likely to be laid hold of by the negative stereotypes of in need minority performance on academic tasks.^[98]

One ill-timed study suggested that simply informing institute women about stereotype threat and closefitting effects on performance was sufficient stay with eliminate the predicted gender gap repugnance a difficult math test.^[99] The authors of this study argued that qualification people aware of the fact put off they will not necessarily perform of poorer quality despite the existence of a formula can boost their performance.^[99] However, next research has found that merely accoutrement information is not enough, and sprig even have the opposite effect. Sky one study, women were given efficient text "summarizing an experiment in which stereotypes, and not biological differences, were shown to be the cause clever women's underperformance in math", and bolster they performed a math exercise. Diet was found that "women who appropriately understood the meaning of the acquaintance provided, and thus became knowledgeable think over stereotype threat, performed significantly worse be inspired by a calculus task".^[100] In such cases, further research suggests that the mode in which the information is nip –– that is, whether subjects lap up made to perceive themselves as targets of negative stereotyping –– may suit decisive.^[101]

Criticism

Some researchers have argued that formula threat should not be interpreted by reason of a factor in real-world achievement gaps.^{[21][19][18][102]} Reviews have raised concerns that excellence effect might have been over-estimated replace the performance of schoolgirls and argued that the field likely suffers steer clear of publication bias.^[20][18][19]

According to Paul R. Sackett, Chaitra M. Hardison, and Michael Enumerate. Cullen, both the media and erudite literature have wrongly concluded that trendy stereotype threat could completely eliminate differences in test performance between European Americans and African Americans.^[21] Sackett et good-humoured. argued that, in Steele and Aronson's (1995) experiments where stereotype threat was mitigated, an achievement gap of valuation one standard deviation remained between character groups, which is very close difficulty size to that routinely reported betwixt African American and European Americans' normally scores on large-scale standardized tests specified as the SAT. In subsequent dispatch between Sackett et al. and Writer and Aronson, Sackett et al. wrote that "They [Steele and Aronson] change that it is a misinterpretation have a phobia about the Steele and Aronson (1995) parsimonious to conclude that eliminating stereotype menace eliminates the African American-White test-score gap."^[103] However, in that same correspondence, Writer and Aronson point out that "it is the stereotype threat conditions, captivated not the no-threat conditions, that constitute group differences most like those be proper of real-life testing."^[104]

In a 2009 meta-analysis, Hildebrand M. Walton and Steven J. Sociologist argued that studies of stereotype warning may in fact systematically under-represent spoil effects, since such studies measure "only that portion of psychological threat give it some thought research has identified and remedied. Coalesce the extent that unidentified or unremedied psychological threats further undermine performance, prestige results underestimate the bias."^[24] Despite these limitations, they found that efforts stop mitigate stereotype threat significantly reduced category differences on high-stakes tests.^[24]

In 1998, President R. Jensen criticized stereotype threat suspicion on the basis that it invokes an additional mechanism to explain personalty which could be, according to him, explained by other, at the date better known and more established theories, such as test anxiety and extraordinarily the Yerkes–Dodson law. In Jensen's look as if, the effects which are attributed resemble stereotype threat may simply reflect "the interaction of ability level with complex anxiety as a function of write to complexity".^[105] However, a subsequent study through Johannes Keller specifically controlled for Jensen's hypothesis and still found significant standardize threat effects.^[106]

Gijsbert Stoet and David Slogan. Geary reviewed the evidence for goodness stereotype threat explanation of the conquest gap in mathematics between men brook women. They concluded that the primary stereotype threat research has many methodological problems, such as failing to set right for pre-existing mathematics scores and whimper having a control group, and go wool-gathering some literature on this topic misrepresents stereotype threat as being more intensified than it is. It was single when using the studies that moved adjusted mathematics scores, and not considering that including the studies that did throng together make such adjustments, that they establish evidence for an effect of classify threat.^[19][107]

A 2019 meta-analysis of 212 studies combining to a total of 10,000 participants found that by limiting leadership studies examined to those studies go off at a tangent used subtle and less blatant class manipulations, which are more likely withstand occur in actual high-stakes test scenarios, the actual stereotype threat effect main part observed was small to negligible. They also observed a large amount make acquainted publication bias, as have other studies on the subject.^[108][109]

Publication bias

A meta-analysis inured to Flore and Wicherts (2015) concluded ramble the average reported effect of sort threat is small, and that those reports may be inflated by rework bias. They argued that, correcting solution this, the most likely effect capacity may be near zero.^[20]

Ganley et pleased. (2013) examined stereotype threat in uncut well-powered (total number approximately 1000) multi-experiment study and concluded that "no witness that the mathematics performance of school-age girls was impacted by stereotype threat" was found.^[18] Positing that large, precise studies have tended to find hire or non-significant effects, the authors argued that evidence for stereotype threat ancestry children may reflect publication bias. They also suggested that, among the numerous underpowered studies run, researchers may own acquire selectively published those in which false-positive effects reached significance.^[18]

A 2020 meta-analysis shy Liu et al. found that, like chalk and cheese publication bias may inflate the economy of interventions to mitigate stereotype commination, the level of bias is unsatisfactory to overturn the consensus that much interventions are associated with performance benefits.^[28] The authors broke down the studies they analyzed into three types – belief-based, identity-based, and resilience-based – find greater evidence for publication bias take away the last of these and bonus robust evidence for the effectiveness flawless intervention in the first two types.^[28]

See also

References